Essay 1 – Definition, Origins and Characteristics of Black Holes in the Universe

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Abstract - In this essay, the authors describe, in terms accessible to young students whose education does not go beyond that of middle school, what “black holes” are, which have been discovered in some regions of the Universe; how and when these black holes form, by whom and how they were discovered, how they relate to the other celestial bodies that populate the Universe, and why the authors of the essay strongly advise their readers against considering the possibility of emigrating into a black hole, should the opportunity arise.

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Essay 2 - The Human Body – Part I and Part II

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Abstract -  In this essay, the author attempts to answer some questions that philosophers, scientists, theologians, and many other scholars of human civilization have asked since the beginning of time. Questions such as: Who are we? What are we made of? Where do we come from? Where are we going? The essay also explores the problem of reincarnation and, scientifically, demonstrates that some forms of reincarnation are possible, even if they do not always necessarily align with what is promulgated by various religions.

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​To be published​

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Essay 3 – Particle Physics – Part I and Part II

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Abstract - In this essay, the authors, starting from the definition of the atom first formulated by the Greek philosopher Democritus about 2,400 years ago, illustrate when and how, in the last 130 years, scientists have discovered that, far from being indivisible as Democritus had hypothesized, the atom is composed of more than a dozen and a half subatomic particles, thus giving rise to a new branch of physics called particle physics. As usual, using language and terminology accessible to middle school students, the authors illustrate the Standard Model of the atom, which explains how these elementary particles are held together by special forces and processes, thus giving rise to the matter we observe in our daily lives.

 

 

 

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Essay 4 – Theory of Relativity

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Abstract - In the very early years of the 20th century, some scientists, who had studied Classical Physics (also called Newtonian Physics by some) for years, began to think that everything that could be discovered in the field of Physics had already been discovered. It is also said that, at the beginning of the last century (around 1900 AD), in a conference of contemporary physicists, the famous Scottish physicist William Thompson (better known as Lord Kelvin) stated: “There is nothing new left to discover in Physics; all that remains to be done is to concentrate on ever more precise measurements of the physical quantities now known.” And yet, a few years later, two new revolutionary discoveries profoundly transformed the world of Physics: the Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.  In this essay, the author will illustrate the Theory of Relativity, formulated by Albert Einstein between 1905 and 1915 AD. We warn our readers that some of the concepts illustrated in this theory defy common sense and our everyday experiences, and for this reason, scientists themselves call them "paradoxes." For example, the "twin paradox" suggests that two twins age at different rates, so much so that one of them, at the age of 60, discovers that his twin is only 26! What you will read in this essay may seem absurd and "paradoxical," but it is pure science! If any concepts are unclear after the first reading, we recommend readers not to be discouraged and to reread a second or even a third time. We assure you that the satisfaction you will feel in understanding the basic concepts and paradoxes you will encounter in this theory will more than compensate for your efforts.

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Essay 5 – Quantum Mechanics – Part I and Part II

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Abstract - Quantum Mechanics is the second of two great theories that, along with the Theory of Relativity, revolutionized the field of physics at the beginning of the 20th century. Like the Theory of Relativity, Quantum Mechanics is a very difficult subject to understand because it postulates certain truths that defy our everyday experiences and common sense, and for this reason, we find them difficult to accept. The word "paradox" is used less frequently in this theory, but here too, as in the Theory of Relativity, we have situations that defy common sense and our acquired experiences. For example, how can it be possible for an object (such as an electron moving from point A to point B in space) to be in two different places at the same time?! In this essay, the author will explain Quantum Mechanics in elementary terms to people with a high school education, without going into the very complicated mathematical details. As in other essays, Explanatory Notes at the end of the essay provide insights and details (including mathematical ones) for those readers who are willing and able to go beyond the fundamental concepts of the theory.

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Essay 6 – Entanglement, Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Computing

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Abstract - When in October 2022, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to Alain Aspect, John F. Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger "for their experiments with entangled photons," thus paving the way for the science called "Quantum Computing," Dr. Carmine Vona's granddaughters, Sophia and Gabriella Vona, the former a college freshman and the latter a high school student, tried to understand what these scientists had discovered by conducting extensive research on the Internet. Frustrated because their efforts had yielded no tangible results, they asked their grandfather the following questions:

• 1.   What is '“entanglement”?

• 2.   What are the “entangled photons”?

• 3.   What is "Quantum Information Science" or "Quantum Computing""?

It's no surprise that the two young women's extensive internet research yielded no tangible results, considering that the topic they were trying to understand has occupied some of the world's leading scientists for nearly a century. Indeed, these scientists have often offered conflicting interpretations of laboratory experiments that seem to defy common sense and, to this day, remain unclear. This essay first explains, in terms accessible to the two women, what entanglement is. Using knowledge from Newtonian mechanics, quantum mechanics, particle physics, and the theory of relativity, it then demonstrates how to measure the properties of two entangled particles and concludes by demonstrating how the properties of these entangled particles can be exploited to build a quantum computer. An uninitiated reader might ask: What's so special about all this?

Over the past 80 years, we've seen dozens and dozens of new computers, starting with the ENIAC, the IBM 1401, the IBM 1410, the IBM 360, the PDP family, the VAX family, etc., etc., etc. What's special about all this is that the processing power of these quantum computers can be millions of times greater than the most powerful supercomputers available on the market today. The creators and proponents of Artificial Intelligence (AI) are counting on quantum computers to realize their dreams. But that will be the subject of another essay.

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Essay 7 - Artificial Intelligence (AI): What is it? How does it work?

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Abstract - In this essay, we will provide our young readers with a broad definition of what AI is, including its origins, structure, and how it works. Scientists were already talking about AI in the 1940s. In our historical overview, we will explain why it took nearly three-quarters of a century to actualize the AI ​​that some scientists had considered just around the corner since the 1940s, and why some scientists, even today, believe that true AI will never be realized. We will also explain why renowned scientists and researchers have differing opinions on the meaning of the label "Artificial Intelligence" and why it is so difficult to define the meaning of the word "intelligence" and measure it accurately. We will conclude by illustrating the main components of an AI system and provide some details on how to build them. We will also further clarify some of the topics covered in the essay, with particular attention to the controversies surrounding some of the most successful AI systems currently on the market.

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Essay 8 – Addendum to the Essay on AI: 2024 Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry

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Abstract - While the author of the paper on Artificial Intelligence (AI) was finishing his work, on 08/10/24 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to John Hopfield and Geoffrey Hinton for their work on "fundamental discoveries and inventions that enable machine learning with artificial neural networks."   The next day, on 09/10/24, the same institution awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to David Baker, Demis Hassabis, and John M. Jumper for their work on "the design and study of proteins by computers" and on "predicting [new] protein structures."   The awarding of the Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry to these scientists for their research and applications of their findings in the field of AI surprised many experts in these fields. In this Addendum to the essay on AI, we will try to shed light on the motivations and explanations provided by the Nobel Prize Committee. We will try to explain to our young readers the connections between disciplines such as psychology, biology, neurology, physics, chemistry, computer science, and mathematics.

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Essay 9 – The Role of Mathematics in Science (What is Mathematics?)

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Abstract - Ever since Dr. Vona began working with his granddaughters (Kayla, Sophia, Gabriella, Victoria, and Olivia) on mostly physics-related essays, he has been more than occasionally intrigued and sometimes uncomfortable answering their questions about the enormous role mathematics plays in physics and all other sciences. “Grandpa, you keep saying your goal is to teach us physics concepts and you promise to stay away from mathematics, yet advanced mathematical formulas often appear in your essays.” “Grandpa, why are the laws of physics often expressed by complex mathematical formulas?” “Grandpa, in most cases you have explained physics concepts very well without using mathematics; yet, it seems that you often feel the need to throw in complex mathematical formulas and then add: when you go to college, you will learn them.” “Grandpa, are you telling us that it was mathematics that discovered black holes in the universe?” These are just some of the questions granddaughters asked their grandfather.

In this essay, we will explain why mathematics is indispensable, not only as a tool for counting, measuring, and comparing, but also as a tool for representing any geometric figure and simulating static systems and dynamic natural phenomena. It is through these simulation processes that mathematics is able to predict events and even anticipate (that is, provide clues leading to) great discoveries. To fully understand the power of mathematics, we will begin with its roots. We will do so by beginning with an overview of its history and then seeing how it has evolved over several millennia. We will demonstrate how mathematics allows us to count, measure, compare, evaluate, extract information, imitate and/or simulate processes, represent, and study objects, physical entities, and physical, chemical, biological, environmental, economic, and social phenomena. It is no coincidence, and with pride, that some mathematicians claim that, without mathematics, none of the sciences we have mentioned would go anywhere, and for this reason, mathematics must be considered the Queen of all sciences.

 

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Essay 10 – Addendum to the Essay "The Role of Mathematics in Science"

(How to Explain Einstein's EFE Equation to an adolescent

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Abstract - Since Dr. Vona introduced the Einstein Field Equation (EFE), the basis of the General Theory of Relativity, to his granddaughters through words (e.g., "abstruse," "very complicated," etc.) and body language (e.g., eye rolls and other facial expressions), he has received feedback that this equation is still unintelligible, despite his efforts to explain it in plain English and without using advanced mathematics. Olivia (age 13) is Dr. Vona's youngest granddaughter, and in this Addendum, Dr. Vona will again attempt to explain the EFE to her, hoping that this time the fear that seems to pervade her whenever she sees this equation will go away. The author will sacrifice scientific rigor (more than before) where necessary, in favor of simple language accessible to very young students.

 

 

 

​To be published